Park Tea Room Essay Example for Free

Park Tea Room Essay Master â€Å"Hally† Harold is the seventeen year old lead of Athol Fugard’s work, a white boy of South African descent, son of his mentor Sam’s employer. Sam is one of two black waiters employed by his family’s business, the St. George’s Park Tea Room. The focus of the play is of the two men’s mutual educating of the other. The younger of the two, Hally takes great pride in his â€Å"educating† Sam on book knowledge, the things that he has learned in reading or the classroom, whereas the elder Sam spends his days educating Hally on the ways of life and the world, showing him how important it is to take pride in oneself and the things that can be accomplished by your own hands. Hally has been caught in a dastardly position being a young man desperately in search of his place in this world as he rapidly approaches manhood, and being the only son of an immensely racist drunkard in the face of South African apartheid. Hally has found himself stuck between the ideologies of his inadequate father and the teachings of his gifted mentor. He battles himself for both loving and being ashamed of his white South African roots and alcoholic father. This play is about the corrosive power and denunciation of racism, ignorance and hatred in a society where those elements are all that surround you. Hally is a very bright young lad torn by his implied societal position and his loyalties to the man whom he feels has afforded him life’s greatest lessons, a black waiter who works for his father, Sam. Hally is a tortured and tormented soul; even the title of the play denotes the societal position of these individuals-Hally is referred to as Master Harold, a seventeen year old boy while Sam and Willie are grown men referred to as boys. The division between the races is clear, there is no â€Å"distortion of the political significance† (Jordan pp. 461) of the setting in which this work takes place, white is better than black and can in no socially significant way be mixed without ill regard. The only comfort to be found in the underlying premise of this work is the fact that Harold does not initially feed into the views of his father and society. He, in the beginning sees what great things he can learn from these black African men and chooses to err on the opposing side of his father’s views of race relations. It is not until Hally begins to feel trapped and cornered by his father’s impending release from the drunkard ward of the local hospital that he slips into the standard ideology of a white male finding his path during South African apartheid. He turns on his mentor, spits in his face and throws a total tantrum because he has not learned how to deal with all the scrapes and cuts that can come of being a man in this world. The introduction of Hally’s drunkard father back into the home is the unadulterated reason for his abruptly abusive and racist behavior toward â€Å"the boys†. His underlying fear is that he won’t be able to stand up for himself and his true beliefs if his father is present. Deep down I don’t feel that Hally believes himself to be any greater or more important than Sam or Willie but he is aware that society feels him to be superior to these two men and that he has yet to find it within him to give his own personal ideals a voice. He has spent all of his life under foot of one of the most racist men in South Africa, yet in the face of that socially and paternally enforced racism Hally has, for the most part, allowed himself to remain open-minded to the gifts and understandings of others, realizing that everyone has something to offer. His father’s hospital stay afforded Hally the time he needed to reflect on his own thoughts to determine what his outlook on this world would be. He was able to live without the weight of race long enough to become comfortable with himself as an individual and the other individuals surrounding him without regard to race or social standing. Being the intelligent lad that he is, he realizes that his father coming home means a lot for the way that he has been living his life, he is inevitably going to have to make some changes; he will either have to change the way that he views the world and begin fully subscribing to his father’s way of thinking, or he will have to find his own manhood and let his father know how he really feels. Hally is a clay chameleon being molded to fit whatever situation he finds himself in; he harbors an immense amount of disgust and disdain for his father and it is apparent at every turn except when he is speaking to his father. When engaging with the patriarch of his family Hally appears loving, caring and compassionate. He does not allow his hatred for his father’s world views to be seen by the man who gave him life, instead he hunts for the underlying love and respect that a son should have for his father as a man, and harnesses that love long enough to engage in an empathetic exchange. The fact that this young man has named the cycle of life the â€Å"principle of perpetual disappointment† speaks volumes of his outlook on the daily affairs of this world. He feels that having his father present in the home will just complicate the lives of everyone else around without justification; his father is just an impediment of unnecessary worth, a hurdle to be overcome if Hally ever desires to see himself find true happiness. As far as Hally is concerned, where reference is made to life being a dance as discussed in the play, it is his thought that no one knows the moves, no one man has all of the steps in order because no one can fully hear the music; as such the voluntary reality that these men discuss throughout the play could never exist. Just the thought of his father coming home changes Harold for the worse. Even in remembering the night that Sam strapped Harold’s father to his back and carried him home from the bar in the rain or the day that Sam took Harold under his wing and taught him not only to ‘fly a kite’ literally but symbolically by spreading his wings as a man and learning to fly on his own. The kite was merely a symbol to teach Harold how important it is to find his own way in this world, not to follow his father’s mind or anyone else’s other than his own. Yet where Sam felt that all these things made he and Harold closer, forging a bond that could not be broken, Hally instead turns on Sam stressing that he no longer refer to him as Hally but as Master Harold, signifying the social position and difference between the two. He does the one thing that Sam would have never expected him to do; he takes the position of the superior being and reduces Sam to a â€Å"nigger† thereby inflicting upon his former mentor an irreversible wound. Hally took his opportunity to put Sam in his place and let him know that no matter what Sam has been to him or done for him and his family over the years that he is not immune to the underlying hatred that erodes the human conscience in instances such as the time period in which this play has been set. Sam tries to make clear the implications of Harold’s actions and stresses the significance of what he has done to him, and their relationship, until the young lad comes to his senses and admits the effect that his love for his father has on him and his behaviors. Hally is fully dependent upon Sam for his understanding of this world because Hally can’t even understand himself. He lashes out at Sam because Sam is the closest person to him and sometimes it’s just easier to hurt the ones you love because you know better what will hurt them than a stranger, but I feel that another reason why he lashed out at Sam in such a way was because beneath it all he knew that Sam could always see his heart and his true intentions. Sam was able to discern and decipher the complex feelings that Hally had for his father and the emotions provoked by the idea of his father’s return. I understand the impressionable minds of youth but this young man is seventeen years old, it is time for him to stop relying on things like his relationship with Sam and to start making a way for himself. In a world full of adults you can’t just act out whenever you want to lashing out at those around you and always expecting people to be as forgiving as Sam was in this instance because it is my thought that the fact of the matter is-Hally was releasing some pinned up thoughts and emotions that he has been harboring, waiting for the day that he could release that portion of his father’s essence which he holds within him. There is no doubt that the relationship previously held between the two has forever been changed. Because he is seventeen years old the world says that it is time for this young lad to become a man, but he is not ready. He’s still relying upon others to tell him what he thinks and how he really feels. If he can’t handle the complexity of his thoughts and emotions for his father how could he ever hope to handle a life out in the world on his own. Harold knows that racism and hatred are wrong, both a lose thread eroding the fabric of life, but that makes no difference to him, when put in a position of discomfort he lashed out at Sam and Willie in the same manner that one would expect of a small child. In his article Boehmer makes it clear how often Fugard uses his main character to bring about the realization of conditions of separateness by shining a light on the trappings of historical pains, that his inevitable alienation has given representation to ordinary lives and not necessarily unique and therefore ‘dramatic’ situations† (Boehmer pp. 165). That is the point which commands emphasis in our analysis because there is nothing particularly special or significant about the setting of this play other than the backdrop of the apartheid era. Without knowledge of this story having taken place during the apartheid era these events could have taken place in any part of the world at any time throughout history. ‘Master Harold’ was no special case; he was a seventeen year old boy like any other seventeen year old boy enthralled in the decision to either follow in his fathers footsteps or to tread his own path. Cummings piece says that Fugards’ work â€Å"dramatizes the racial situation in South Africa† (Cummings pg. 2), this is true insofar as Fugard has taken the apartheid struggle and turned it into a dramatic work, as have many other artists, but not in such a way as for the thoughts or ideas of the characters within the play to have been exaggerated because just like I said, Hally was no special case. There was no need of exaggeration because we see young men like Hally everyday, unsure of themselves or their place in this world, worried that if they make a decision for their life that it may be the wrong one so they choose to sit idly in their comfort zone too afraid to venture into any unfamiliar territory. For Hally it would have been widely unfamiliar for him to stand up to his father and say, ‘thank you father, for giving me life, but my thoughts of this world should be formed of my own volition, not handed down from generation to generation’ and it is until just such young men can do that very thing that the older ideals of racism and hatred will begin to falter. Cummings is right about one thing though, the simplicity of the setting does largely contradict the complexity of the characters (Cummings pg. 2) but I think that it must be understood that if the setting and characters would otherwise be in constant competition with each other and no one would be able to follow the play. The characters are what carry the work. If Hally had no minutiae to set his character apart and was just another seventeen year old lead, there would be nothing pivotal to hold this play together. All the little details are what make these characters so profound and the work of such high quality; it would be a detriment to the production if anyone was to ever tamper with the formula. References Fugard, Athol. â€Å"Master Harold †¦ and the Boys†. New York: Penguin Plays (1982). Boehmer, Elleke. â€Å"Review: Speaking from the Periphery†. Third World Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Jan. , 1989), pp. 161-166. Cummings, Mark. â€Å"Reclaiming the Canon: A World Without Collisions: â€Å" â€Å"Master Harold†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦and the Boys† in the Classroom†. The English Journal, Vol. 78, No. 6 (Oct. , 1989), pp. 71-73. Jordan, John O. â€Å"Life in the Theatre: Autobiography, Politics, and Romance in â€Å"Master Harold†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦and the Boys†. Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 39, No. 4, Athol Fugard Issue (Winter, 1993), pp. 461-472. Solomon, Alisa. â€Å"Review: [untitled]-Reviewed work(s): †¦Master Harold†¦and the Boys by Athol Fugard†. Performing Arts Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1 (1983), pp. 78-83.

Quotation About Best Practice In Supervision Social Work Essay

Quotation About Best Practice In Supervision Social Work Essay Koster (2003) stated that supervision leads to a mental and emotional education that can guide practical work, frees fixed patterns of experience and behaviour and promotes the willingness as well as the ability to act suitably, carefully and courageously(p1). This essay will explore Kosters quotation about best practice in supervision, in relation to supervision in the area of counselling. This essay will also identify the benefits and difficulties of supervision, in regards to counselling, that can arise in supervision. Examples from a personal perspective will be presented on how supervision throughout work experience enabled difficult situations to be handled. Furthermore, an analysis of how effectively supervision was conducted throughout work experience, as well as personal suggestions on improvements of supervision in that work setting. Kosters quote does speak truth as supervision can lead to all sorts of positive and negative developments (Pelling, Bowers Armstrong, 2007). In particular he claims that it can lead to mental and emotional education that guides practical work, frees from fixed patterns of experience and behaviours. Supervision in counselling is very vital as it aims to increase self-awareness and enhances professional competence which will guide the supervisee throughout their work in a confident manner (Pelling, Bowers Armstrong, 2007), which is similar to what Koster is trying to state. The goal of supervision is primarily about the supervisees developmental growth and professional awareness (Pelling, Bowers Armstrong, 2007). Which again leads back to Kosters quote about how supervision leads to development; and that development of experience will guide the supervisee throughout their work in counselling. Thorough supervision, the supervisee will grow, reflect and develop in their professional and personal skills. It is through these developments that will alter their behaviour that will eventually guide them through their work to act in a suitable, careful and courageously; throughout their career in counselling. Which in return, is vital for a counsellor as his or her mental and emotional education needs to continually develop, and this can be accelerated through supervision. It can be said that a number of individuals and organisations can benefit from quality clinical supervision. Quality supervision is about making sure the client is not being harmed and is being assisted to accomplish established goals in competently appropriate ways, the receiver of counselling services is the first to benefit (Page Wosket, 1994). The majority of the conversation in supervisory sessions centres on interventions being used for the client and advance to how the supervisee is stressed with various parts of the case. While the supervisor is interacting, clarifying, explaining, educating, supporting and coming up with helpful professional interventions, another person is benefiting from this while interacting back to their supervisor the supervisee. As Pelling, Bowers, and Armstrong (2007) suggests: This is where the supervisees scope of practice, expertise and insight is being intentionally and incrementally expanded. Engaging supervisors in the struggle for understanding is valuable for deep learning to occur. In this sense it is the clinical material that is the teacher, not just the supervisor themselves. Supervision can insulate the supervisee from work-related stress, variously referred as burn-out. (p. 126) In addition, if the supervisee is an apprentice from an educational establishment, the organisation itself benefits with the development of a more proficient and safe practitioner (Pelling, Bowers Armstrong, 2007). This gives the organisation an excellent reputation for supporting and appropriately training the people in their charge in a professional manner, hence supervision being provided by the organisation benefits the organisation with a good positive professional reputation. Last of all, the clinical supervisor gains a great deal from offering supervision. While they support the supervisees, their understanding of clinical work, knowledge, experience, the world and themselves develops a great deal and the sense of fulfilment of being additive to so many is indeed rewarding and satisfying (Pelling, Bowers Armstrong, 2007). Supervision can be a valuable constructive learning tool, but at times difficulties in supervision can make it a negative experience. Moskowitz and Rupert (1983) found in their research, within USA, that supervisees reported that 38% of those surveyed claimed that there had been difficulties and conflict in their supervision that interfered with their learning. Their research further found that there are three major areas of difficulties and conflict that arise in supervision: theoretical orientation, style of supervision and personality issues (Moskowitz Rupert, 1983). Differences in theoretical orientation may lead to difficulties and conflict in supervision (Carroll Gilbert, 2006). In various organisations, supervisees may not have a choice of a supervisor and may perhaps end up getting supervised by somebody who has a different theoretical to their own. For example, a supervisor may be convinced of the rightness of their orientation and is not ready to accept interference that arise from a different school of psychology. These differences in theoretical orientation are a common problem in supervision and it may lead to rifts between the supervisor and supervisee, therefore failing to negotiate differences of this kind (Holloway, 1995). Secondly, difficulties and conflicts may arise in supervision when it comes to the style of supervision. Some supervisors have a formal style whilst others have an informal style of approach (Carroll Gilbert, 2006). There are four unsatisfactory styles of supervision that cause conflicts and difficulties: constrictive supervision; amorphous supervision; unsupportive supervision; and therapeutic supervision (Abott, 1984). In the constructive type, there is limited autonomy. In the amorphous type, there is very little supervisory contribution and the supervisor may have a somewhat laissez faire outlook to the entire process, where whatever happens goes. Unsupportive supervisors are unfriendly and distant and supervisees would not willingly approach them with their difficulties. Therapeutic supervision transforms the supervisee into a patient while the supervisor takes on the position of the therapist often in a persistent and pushy manner that infantilizes the supervisee (Carroll Gilbert, 2006). The last style of supervision that causes conflict and difficulties is known as personality issues. This is when there is a personality clash between the supervisor and supervisee which can result to a rupture in the supervisory alliance (Carroll Gilbert, 2006). These ruptures are often caused by confusion in communication, for example the supervisor may misinterpret something the supervisee has said in a negative way. Furthermore, the rapture may be simply be caused by the supervisees own defensiveness. An example would be that the supervisee may act defensively when the supervisor gives feedback, therefore causing a strain in the supervision relationship. Supervision is a valuable tool for a supervisee when they are having difficulty dealing with their client in an effective professional manner. Whatever the problem is, in regards to the well-being of the client, the supervisee can discuss these issues throughout supervision in order to uncover helpful interventions in dealing with the matter (Wosket, 1999). An example from work experience in which supervision enabled to deal effectively with a difficult situation, is when there was a client who brought up an issue that was difficult to handle. The reason the issue was difficult to handle is because there was limited knowledge in that area and there was no confidence in dealing with the matter. So in order to deal with this dilemma, it was brought up to the attention to the supervisor throughout the supervision session. Throughout the supervision session the supervisor, listened to the dilemma and asked explorative questions, made encouraging statements and shared self- disclosure. She also in return, working the supervisee, came up with interventions to put together in order for the supervisee to handle the struggling case. The supervisor clarified the problem to the supervisee and explored potential explanations and interventions for the supervisee to consider. The supervisee filled in the gaps of the knowledge and asked the supervisee to reflect and explore options on how he will put the explored interventions in to action. The supervisor also used modelling and role-plays to show the supervisee on how they might be able to assist their client. So through supervision, the supervisors challenges and confrontations facilitated the supervisees critical reflection and learning, hence this gave confidence to the supervisee to handle and deal with their difficult situation. A concise breakdown will currently be offered on how efficiently supervision was carried right through work experience. Supervision was conducted effectively because the supervisor followed a significant process in order for supervision to function at its best. The initial supervision session is when the supervisor clarified what the supervisee has done in the past in regards to practice and supervision, and asks where they would like assistance. When it came to the daily supervision sessions, it was noted at times that the supervisor would follow a process right from beginning to end. When the supervisee had an issue, it would be looked thoroughly. Issues discussed in supervision included: intervention strategies and future plans; counsellor professional development; supervisee client alliance and boundaries; client issues and goal setting; supervisor supervisee relationship; ethical and legal issues; and so on. Once the issue were discussed, the supervisor would ask a series of structured questions in order to gain clarification, as well as allowing the supervisee to reflect and offload. Such helpful questions included: What are you feeling and views about the issue?; Where do you feel most confused?; what kind of help would you like?; and what are the key details I need to know about the case?. Furthermore, during supervision the supervisor and supervisee took notes during sessions to have an ongoing record of plans, themes, struggles, clients discussed, learning and progress. Once the issue was discussed and the supervisor asked her questions, the supervisor would then encourage the supervisee to: understand the problem; find links among the information; develop a treatment plan to put into practice; and create a working proposition (Carroll Gilbert, 2006). Towards the end of every supervision session, the supervisor would give feed back as well as ask for verbal feedback back from the supervisee. The supervisor would ask something as simple as How was our session for you today? or Was this session valuable or unbeneficial to you today? Summing up, supervision was conducted effectively because the supervisor followed a valuable process throughout the sessions. Apart from following an effective process, the supervisor herself was encouraging, respectful, genuine, empathetic, and self-disclosed, which as a result added further to the effectiveness of supervision. From personal experience, the supervision that took place during work placement cannot be faulted. However, there is lack of knowledge of how the other supervisors function in their role, as during placement only one supervisor was given to work closely with. Focusing purely on the supervisor provided with, her name being Amy, she was nothing but professional, educated and friendly. One could suggest that Amy is the ideal supervisor as throughout work placement she always showed respect, genuineness, empathy and was always encouraging. She was also concrete and showed a great deal self-disclosure throughout supervision. As stated, Amy would be the ideal supervisor as her supervision qualities match what Carifo and Hess found in their research in what makes an ideal supervisor. Carifo and Hess (1987) found that the ideal supervisor is a person who shows respect, empathy, genuineness, concreteness and self-disclosure in his or her dealings with supervisees (p.247). So as one can see, supervision cannot be faulted as it was nothing other but a positive learning experience, with the help of a true professional supervisor who knew how to function in her role. Therefore, it is too complex to come up with suggestions for improvements for supervision in the work setting because it just worked to well in order to suggest any changes. Supervision may have its benefits and difficulties, but it is those experiences a supervisee needs to experience in order to develop their mental and emotional experience. It is these developments and experiences that allow the individual to be able to learn and handle future challenges in their area of counselling. With the right supervisor, as well as having regular supervision sessions that are conducted effectively, it will consequently transform the supervisee into a stronger counsellor who is willing to learn, act suitably, carefully and courageously; throughout their counselling career.

Politics Essays Making Democracy Work

Politics Essays Making Democracy Work Making Democracy Work A Review of Robert Putnam’s Making Democracy Work Introduction: Since its publication in 1993, Robert Putnam’s Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy has been hailed for changing the way academics and policy-makers approach the relationship between politics and society. Putnam accomplishes this feat not so much with his compelling arguments, but with the innovative methodology he employs. Much attention has already been given to the way Putnam combines quantitative and qualitative data in his research; he amalgamates numerical data on Italian institutional performance and civic culture, with the path-dependent historical legacy that predates it. Similarly, much attention has also been focused on the introduction of social capital as a new variable worthy of social scientists’ consideration. Since these topics have already been exhausted in reviews as well as other literature connected to Putnam’s book, this essay will attempt to go a different route. This essay will primarily argue that Putnam has successfully managed to combine both a structure and agency-centered approach into a cohesive research design project. Firstly, the structural approach is inherent in Putnam’s study due to the fact that he is attempting to analyze why Italian regions with the same political structure perform differently. Secondly, using network analysis, Putnam’s social capital and civic culture variables will be understood as being related to agency and of affecting institutional performance. Finally, the overall strengths and weakness that arise from combining the two approaches in a research design project will be highlighted. Overall, despite several unavoidable limitations, in Making Democracy Work Putnam shows that using a combined structuration approach is capable of harvesting a fuller understanding of a particular issue in this case, Italian institutional performance. The Study and the Setting: In 1970 the highly centralized Italian government set-up identical regional governmental institutions in each of the country’s twenty regions. The experiment offered Robert Putnam and his colleagues a unique opportunity to analyze institutional performance over time, and what precisely makes government work in a setting where national factors and institutional design are held constant. Despite the fact that all the Italian regions got identical institutions, the performance of these institutions varied widely across Italy. The discrepancy between the regions particularly between the North and the South led Putnam to believe that â€Å"social context and history profoundly condition the effectiveness of institutions† (Putnam, 182). Therefore, in the causal argument that Putnam puts forth in order to explain what affects institutional performance, institutions are framed as both an independent and dependent variable. So to speak, even though institutions do shape politics, institutions themselves are shaped by social context and history. For this reason, Putnam considers yet another independent variable in his complex causal relationship civic culture. Putnam’s Methodology: Before analyzing how structure and agency unite, and the way in which civic culture is measured in Making Democracy Work, it is worthwhile to take a look at the broader and overarching methodological backdrop on the grounds of which Robert Putnam’s study takes root. The setting for the study, as alluded to above, offered Robert Putnam and his colleagues the opportunity to embark on a twenty year voyage of inquiry; their choice of vessel, a sub-national comparison. Certainly with the case of Italian institutional performance a sub-national paired comparison is sure to prove more illuminating than a cross-national comparison because one can hold-constant for national context. That being said, it is necessary to note that often when one considers cultural, historical, economic and/or socioeconomic conditions, there will invariably be cases where greater variation exists within countries than does between them (Snyder, 96). The experience of Italy provides a unique backdrop for Putnam to study institutional performance because many factors are held constant, relatively speaking. Aside from holding institutional design constant, Italy is a far less diverse country than say India or even Russia with regards to language, religion, ethnicity, class and caste. Though it might prove hard for Putnam’s methods to travel beyond a Western context and be directly applied, it should not be held against him or discredit his book by any means. Just because the arguments might have difficulty traveling (and we should note that Putnam’s arguments in Making Democracy Work are the underpinnings of his second book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community) does not mean that they should be judged negatively. After all, this is the precise purpose of a sub-national paired comparison to develop theories or generalizations that one is unable to make through cross-national paired comparisons due to all the intervening variables that cannot be held constant. Furthermore, Making Democracy Work does not qualify merely as a sub-national paired comparison. Putnam really tests his arguments against a broad spectrum. In so doing, he avoids the common problem of selection bias, and derivatively of false dichotomies. Putnam does not pick and choose the regions he incorporates in his study. Making Democracy Work is extensive in that it includes and considers all of the regions in Italy equally, and weighs them up against the same credo (where information permits). In each region Putnam interprets quantitative data on institutional performance and then analyzes it alongside quantitative data regarding its civic culture. He then pushes the envelope by reaching far-beyond direct causal inference and into history. The historical qualitative data that Putnam accumulates, allows him, ostensibly, to isolate the main factor that leads to variance in institutional performance in Northern and Southern Italy social capital. Making Democracy Work benefits from diverse measurements the indicators used are wide-ranging, innovative, impressive, and provide for a superior demonstration of Putnam’s arguments. In fact, it is the combination of both the quantitative and qualitative data that earn Robert Putnam and Making Democracy Work the recognition of being simultaneously both a large-N and small-N sub-national comparison. Structural Forces: Having laid out the methodological framework that Putnam has developed it is now possible to focus on the structuration approach that he incorporates. The explanation of institutional performance the dependent variable is contingent to a certain degree on a structural analysis. While all the regions in Italy are constrained by the same national structural force the highly centralized government, the regions are also constrained by their own historical legacies and the structures that have emerged from the past. In this sense, according to Putnam, the history of the North has cultivated an arena/structure much more conducive to proper institutional performance than has the South. Putnam chooses twelve indicators as evidence of institutional performance, or â€Å"good government†. These indicators include: Cabinet stability, budget promptness, statistical and information services, reform legislation, legislative innovation, day care centers, family clinics, industrial policy instruments, agricultural spending capacity, local health unit expenditures, housing and urban development and bureaucratic responsiveness. Far from agency-centered, the conditions of these indicators are all determined by the structure in which they are situated. Essentially, the greater the influence of the structure, the more predictable the political behaviour is likely to be. Following Putnam’s path-dependent argument that historical legacies shape the structural forces (which come to light from such indicators), it is important to then consider the nature of the historical legacies themselves. In Putnam’s view the historical legacies worth exploring are those of civic culture. Analyzing the Affects Agency: The affects of agency on Italian institutional performance is not analyzed explicitly in Making Democracy Work. Putnam does not look at individual leaders, regional representatives, or even influential citizens in any of Italy’s diverse regions contemporarily nor historically. However, implicit in his definition of civic culture, as the â€Å"norms of reciprocity and networks of civic engagement† (Putnam, 167) is an understanding of agency nonetheless. If agency is based on the actions and decisions of a single person, it must also be based on the interactions and collective wills of many people. A horizontal-network analysis is an ideal approach to take when trying to understand the affects of agency in regional patterns of behavior. From a nominalist point of view the researcher must use a conceptual framework to define the boundaries of the network or who/what is and is not included in the research agenda. For his part, Putnam proposes four indicators in which one can find evidence of a civic culture; these indicators include participation in voluntary associations, newspaper readership, referenda turnout, and personalized preference voting (or lack thereof). Even though groups like football clubs are internally heterogeneous and diverse, network analysis helps Putnam to disentangle the inherent complexity and to highlight the important aspects of functioning as a group. To the point of emphasis, the fact that Putnam also correlates these â€Å"objective† measures with more opinion-based survey indicators of civic culture goes to show that Putnam is committed to incorporating the role of agency in his research design. Essentially, he moves from a nominalist to a more realist network analysis by focusing on the individuals. More specifically, Putnam shows that network boundaries are established based on the subjective perspectives of the network actors themselves. For this reason, the data in his research is based to large degree on surveys, questionnaires and interviews. The difference between the North and the South of Italy therefore, can be expressed in the different types of networks they produce. Putnam considers all of the following: the different types of networks that exist, the organization of the networks, and the individuals within the networks. Relating to the different types of networks, Putnam notices that the density of networks in the North is much greater than in the South. Not only do more social groups exist in the North, but membership in them is greater and the pattern of ties between the members is stronger. With regards to the networks’ organization, in the North there is a higher frequency of interaction, and a larger amount of emotional investment within the network. Lastly, as far as individuals are concerned, Putnam looks at subjective measures like trust, solidarity, personal closeness and ideological proximity to ultimately discern that in Northern Italy individuals are more likely to enter horizontal-networks and develop a more cohesive civic culture that fosters responsive government and higher institutional performance. Strengths and Weakness of Structuration: In a sense, Putnam has combined a structural and agency approach into a single research design. The structuration approach has several strength and weaknesses worth highlighting, particularly with reference to Making Democracy Work. Perhaps the major benefit of combining the analysis of structure and agency in the case of Italian institutional performance is that Putnam is able to recognize and demonstrate the interplay between the two. Putnam shows how structures and agents are co-determining and mutually implicating. When assessing the causal relationship between civic culture and Italian institutional performance the case is made that the two entities are defined by their internal relationship, such that the two entities derive their meaning by their relationship and have no meaning or basis without the other. People produce the structure, and the structure in turn reproduces the people. So to speak, agents and structures are ontologically equal in Making Democracy Work. Inherit in this methodological approach’s greatest strength is also its greatest weakness. One of the major problems with operationalizing the structuration approach is that it is often difficult to design a research strategy that can draw valid causal inferences. As with the case of Making Democracy Work, the difficulty in making inferences is determining whether something is a cause or an effect there has to be a starting point for an analysis. One inevitably has to choose a bottom-up or top-down approach treating either agent or structure as ontologically primitive. Robert Putnam, by discerning them ontologically equal has failed to choose a starting point for analysis. Instead of a parsimonious and simple linear causal relationship, Putnam points to vicious and virtuous circles that have led to contrasting, path dependent social equlibria (Putnam, 180). Good or bad institutional performance will further continue a history of good or bad civic culture. More so, the correlation between civic associations and social capital that Putnam professes is also circular: While to think purely in terms of linear causation is to do injustice to the overall interconnectedness of the variables, the danger of thinking in terms of equilibria is that you develop a ‘chicken or egg’ scenario. One begins to beg the question of where in history it is right to draw the line when studying Italian civic culture? Indeed, Putnam’s historical record has become the focus of considerable criticism from scholars. Sidney Tarrow, in â€Å"Making Social Science Work across Time and Space†, contends that social scientists go to history with a theory to prove, and do not objectively derive viable generalizations from history. History requires picking and choosing; one must even choose where in history to draw the line before beginning a study. However, if a line can always be drawn back farther one must ask whether cases can really be isolable and independent at all. For example, can the case not be made that because the North of Italy colonized the South, that the problems of the South are really the problems of the North? Some critics say that it is unfair for Putnam to displace the problem of poor institutional performance on the South and not to consider the possibility of contamination. However, Putnam can hardly be criticized for this everything can be understood as ex post facto something else. Irrespective of whether Putnam is right or wrong on where in history he draws his line, Making Democracy Work should be hailed for its attempt to regardless of its actual success at combining quantitative and qualitative data, and structure and agency, in creating a complex causal relationship. Conclusion: In Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Robert Putnam has successfully managed to unite both a large-N and small-N sub-national comparison into a single model of inquiry. Equally as impressive, he has successfully managed to combine both a structure and agency-centered approach into a cohesive research design project. Putnam uses a structural approach to analyze his dependent variable political institutions, and an agency-centered approach to analyze an independent variable that has an affect on the development of political institutions and their efficacy civic culture. In so doing, Putnam manages to turn political institutions into an independent variable too, highlighting the interconnectedness of the two variables. Due to this interconnected circular nature of Putnam’s argument, Putnam’s study of Italian institutional performance, though both descriptive and predictive, lacks convincing prescriptive capabilities. Nevertheless, despite its prescriptive shortcomings, Putnam shows that using a combined structuration approach is capable of harvesting a fuller understanding of a particular issue in this case, Italian institutional performance. Works Cited Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). Snyder, Richard. â€Å"Scaling Down: The Subnational Comparative Method,† Studies in Comparative International Development 26:1 (Spring 2001), pp. 93-110. Works Consulted Dwainpayan, Bhattacharyya, et al. (eds.) Interrogating Social Capital: The Indian Experience. (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004). Furlong, Paul. â€Å"Review of: Robert Putnam’s Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy,† International Affairs 70 (January 1994), pp. 172. Kwon, Hyeong-Ki. â€Å"Associations, Civic Norms, and Democracy: Revisiting the Italian Case,† Theory and Society 33 (2004), pp. 135-166. Levi, Margaret. â€Å"Social and Unsocial Capital: A Review Essay of Robert Putnams Making Democracy Work,† Politics and Society24 (March 1996), pp. 45-55. Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000). Sabetti, Filippo. â€Å"Path Dependency and Civic Culture: Some Lessons from Italy About Interpreting Social Experiments,† Politics and Society 24 (March 1996), pp. 19-44. Tarrow, Sidney. â€Å"Making Social Science Work Across Space and Time: A Critical Reflection on Robert Putnams Making Democracy Work,† American Political Science Review 90 (June 1996), pp. 389-397.

Analysis of Internet Protocols and Infrastructure Essay -- Internet Te

Analysis of Internet Protocols and Infrastructure Introduction: Network: Anything reticulated or decussated at equal distances, with interstices between the intersections. - A Dictionary of the English Language SECTION : 1 1.1 WHAT IS A NETWORK? A) What is a network? A network is simply a collection of machines connected in some way that allows them to communicate with each other and share information. To do this the machines have to be connected in some way that allows communication, and have an agreed upon a language to talk when they do communicate. Components of a network might include individual hosts, some form of communications hardware, a network protocol and a collection of network services. B) Individual hosts A network is a collection of individual machines sometimes referred to as hosts. Each host (computer) must have some unique identifier that allows other hosts to talk to it. 1.2 COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK A) Network Protocol In order to communicate the parties must speak the same language. Languages on computer networks are referred to as network protocols. A network protocol is simply a set of rules and formats that govern how information is sent and in what format it is sent. Some of the different network protocols used today include TCP/IP (Internet and UNIX favourite), IPX (Novell), Appletalk (MAC), DECnet and various others. TCP/IP is quickly becoming the networking protocol and is the one I concentrate on in this subject. B) Network services To be of use to users the network will provide various services including file, print and device sharing, electronic mail etc. 1.3 TYPES OF NETWORKS A) Network categories  · LAN (local ... ...UNIX the routing table can be viewed using the netstat command. The route a packet follows can be viewed using the traceroute command. Routing tables are either created statically, or by the systems administrator configuring the system, using the startup or configuration fiels, to used a pre-defined, unchanging route.dynamically.  · There are protocols, part of TCP/IP, that will dynamically modify the routing table in response to events.  · Adding a host to the network requires obtaining, installing and configuring the necessary network hardware, gather the required information including IP address and hostname of the new host, the gateway and the name server, the network address and the subnet mask, modify the appropriate configuration and startup files with that information, make sure the new host has an entry in the domain name service, test the connection.

Apartment Sale Proposal :: essays research papers

VINTAGE REALTY GROUP Subject: A One Bedroom Apartment Unit at the Bay Garden Neighborhood Dear Mr. The 1311 apartment unit offers a breathtaking view on the Bay and the city skyline. It has been fully renovated, also with careful details that enhance its natural beauty. You can call this apartment unit beautiful. You might consider it convenient, or even call it relaxing. But most importantly, we believe this is the place you can call home. The entire living room area overlooks the Bay and exclusive Star Island with magnificent sunsets and cruise ships at a distance. Wall-to-wall white Italian marble floors add to its beauty. A remarkable bathroom features Calcutta gold marble floors and high quality Kohler fixtures. A full kitchen provides you with views of the Bay and a cute dinning area. Practical and convenient Murphy bed that folds into the wall can accommodate extra visitors or a growing family. Two air conditioning units keep each room at the optimum temperature. Added inner railing that blend with the window frames can accommodate a  ¾ inch thick sheet of plywood and provide extra protection and peace of mind in case of any weather disturbances. Bay Garden is a 14-story building at 1450 Bay Road, Miami Beach, located just a few blocks from Lincoln Road, with its classy shops and gourmet restaurants. Building includes a same floor laundry room, easy access parking, beautiful swimming pool surrounded by palm trees and a fabulous Art Deco district location in South Beach. You will be close to the action and the fun. However, at the same time you will enjoy endless hours of peace and quiet by the Bay. Everything is at a walking distance including Regal Cinemas Theater complex, legendary Ocean Drive, the beach, and South Shore Hospital. Priced to sell at $93, 000, the unit is built to last more than a

Health Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution could affect the climate, the environment, and human health.   Among these areas, the health is the main focus of this paper (Thomson Scientific, 2005).Polluted air may contain one or more hazardous substances that affect human health.   The term of measurement for this is â€Å"particulate matter† or the number of particles of potentially hazardous substances as percentage of air.This includes a wide range of pollutants.   Examples of particulate matter includes road dust, diesel soot, fly ash, wood smoke, nitrates in fertilizers, sulfate aerosols, lead, and arsenic to name a few.The suggested Federal limit of an â€Å"average† of 50 micrograms of â€Å"particulate matter† per cubic foot of air in one year period is considered poor air quality {Gore, 2005).Health effects of air pollution could be short-term or long-term. Effects will depend on the individual’s sensitivity.   When it comes to the extent of harm, it usually depends on the total exposure to damaging chemicals. Short-term effects may include simple symptoms such as headaches, nausea and allergic reactions.These symptoms could lead to irritation of the eyes, nose and throat.   There are also severe cases which could lead to upper respiratory infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis.   It may be short-term but the effects are severe and will need more medical attention.   Air pollutants also have long-term effects which include lung cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and heart disease.These effects could even damage the brain, nerves, liver or kidneys.   According to the National Resources Defense Council, some 64,000 people in the USA may be dying prematurely each year from cardiopulmonary causes linked to air pollution (Gore, 2005).The most affected people were the children, and the elderly.   In addition, people with health problems such as asthma, hearth disease also suffer more when air is polluted. In 1995 study by the American C ancer Society and Harvard Medical School, air pollution accounts for about 300,000 premature deaths in USA each year (Gore, 2005).Children are one of the most affected by air pollution because they have not yet fully developed their immune system.   Simple cigarette smoke and smoke coming from exhausts of motor vehicles could be detrimental to them.Researchers have reported in their long study that children teenagers in Southern California were likely to have diminished lung function because of severe air pollution.   The study made by James Gauderman of University of Southern California and his colleagues was published in New England Journal of Medicine on 1,759 children ages 10 to 18 in a dozen Southern California communities.The study was concluded that the reason for the diminishing lung function came primarily from car exhaust.   It was found out that 7.9 percent of the 18-year-olds in the highest pollution areas had lung capacities that were less than 80 percent of what they should have been.Among those subjected to the least-polluted air, 1.6 percent had underperforming lungs. It was also reported that there were similar effects when children live in the home of a mother who smokes.   Estimated was half a million die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes (Gore, 2004).Just like children, elderly and people with health problems are most at risk in polluted air.     As people grow older, they encounter more and more health problems which could be aggravated by air pollution.   The exact impact may not be thoroughly understood but long term exposure may increase susceptibility to infections.Also to be taken into account is the duration of the exposure and concentration of the particulate matter in the air.   It is estimated that polluted air shortened the lives by an average of one to two years. In the great â€Å"Smog Disaster† in London in 1952, four thousand people died in few days due to hig h concentrations of pollution (Gore, 2005).There are many steps made to protect human health against air pollution.   American Lung Association is very active and recommends the use of heat recovery ventilator or an energy recovery ventilator remove stale polluted air (Gore, 2005).A treaty called Kyoto Protocol in 1997 entered as part of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change made a great impact on reducing air pollution.   The treaty aims to reduce emission of dangerous gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide by industrialized countries which affects the health of their citizens. One measure adopted in the treaty to reduce harmful discharges is creation of carbon emission (CO) credits.Those who failed to observe the restriction will be ordered to install necessary equipment to reduce the air pollution under pain of severe financial sanction or buy (CO) credits.The credits are like ordinary commodities.   They could sell to it to companies that f ind it difficult to comply with the emission restriction.   If the market value of the (CO) credit is higher than the cost of pollution reduction equipment, they will be forced to comply thus, reducing the air pollution that affects human health.According to reports, these (CO) credits are now being traded in the exchanges of Chicago Climate Exchange in the US, European Climate Exchange in United Kingdom, Nord Pool in Norway and PowerNext in France. (Palabrica, 2007).ReferencesPalabrica, R. (2007). Trading on climate change, corporate securities info.Philippine Daily Inquirer.Thomson Scientific (2005). Air pollution. Retrieved September 7, 2007 fromESI Special Topics. Retrieved on September 7, 2007 from http://esi-topics.com/airpolGore, P. (2005). Air pollution health effects. Retrieved August 7, 2007 from http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/pollution-main.html

Broken marriages among Overseas Filipino Workers Essay

One of the major problems that the country faces today is the issue of broken marriages among Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW). One of the major problems of OFWs is the struggle of broken families, these are caused by the feeling of loneliness, and the feeling of freedom from the long distance with their wives or husbands. This may also be caused by a situation that OFWs encounter, which is an active extramarital relationship (Pinoy OFW, 2012). The main problem here is the necessity to work abroad. If this situation is not handled, the consequences not only affect the couple but it greatly affects the child. The parents are most likely to be emotionally, financially troubled, and the worst is being socially stigmatized. (Government of Singapore, 2006). Severe psychological and behavioral problems are two to three times more prone to children with divorced families compared to non-divorced ones, Hetherington’s study (Dowling & Barnes, 2000). The solution to this problem is to de al with the local problems of the country. According to Dr. Clement Camposano (as cited in Susan, 2012) a migration anthropologist and senior instructor of the University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P). The decision to go abroad is an economic choice, many Filipinos aim to invest to further their goals, professionals are paid poorly locally compared to the income opportunity that are open in different countries. A reason why Filpinos go abroad is the fact that companies locally offer low salary. This local disruption leads to the problem on which families have to be separated and possibly destroy their marriage. There are top reasons why Filipinos work abroad; one of them is the unstable economic situation of the country (Pinoy OFW, 2009).the climate changes, calamities and political demise are some factors that lead the Philippines into an unstable situation (Lopez, 2014). Filipinos are also in the face of struggle for employment in the Philippines, this may be the prevailing cause of why Filipinos go abroad in the first place (Pinoy OFW, 2009). According to the National Statistics Office of the Philippines (NSO, 2014) the Philippine unemployment rate averaged 8.96 since 1994 until present time, the Philippines decreased to 6.70 from 7 in the second quarter of the year. The Philippines has a high uneployment rate. These are only  some of the reasons why Filipinos work from afar from their families. The solution could only be done by the country’s leaders.This paper aims to suggest only an option to solving the crisis, the solution suggested is not the only answer to the phenomenon. A broken family could be prevented by self disciline and devotion to their families (Pinoy OFW, 2012). As said earlier, this solution could only be applied to the leaders. The leaders should aim to fix the problems on a smaller scale, within local bounderies. If the suggestion is to be taken in to action, the issue of broken families could be solved. Filipinos would not have the necessity to go abroad if the opportunities in the country are upright and befitting to the professional attainment of its members. Bibliography Dowling, E., & Barnes, G. G. (2000). Working with children and parents through separation and divorce. houndmills, England: Macmillan Press LTD. Government of Singapore. (2006, November 1). Effects of Divorce. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from Syariahcourt: http://app.syariahcourt.gov.sg/syariah/front-end/abtdivorce_effectsofdivorce_e.aspx Lopez, E. (2014). Unstable growth and political demise. The Manila Times. Philippines, N. S. (2014, September 10). Philippines unemployment rate. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from Trading Economics: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/philippines/unemployment-rate Pinoy OFW. (2009, November 1). 8 reasons why many Filipinos work abroad. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from Pinoy-OFW: http://www.pinoy-ofw.com/news/355-reasons-why-many-filipinos-like-to-work-abroad.html Pinoy OFW. (2012, November 28). 19 common OFW problems, causes, and how to prevent them. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from Pinoy-OFW: http://www.pinoy-ofw.com/news/24177-ofw-problems.html Susan, K. ( 2012). Is it choice or necessity? Philippine daily inquirer.